Perspective, in the context of vision and visual perception, is the way in which objects appear to the eye based on their spatial attributes; or their dimensions and the position of the eye relative to the objects.
PUT SIMPLY: The term perspective is an attempt to depict (on a two-dimensional surface like paper) an image as it is viewed by the eye. It is what lends depth to a painting or drawing.
Vanishing Point
One of the main uses of perspective in painting is to establish the position from which the artist or spectator views the scene. This is done by placing a horizontal line across the notional surface of the picture (the ‘horizon line’) and a vertical line down it (the ‘centre of vision’). Both are wholly imaginary lines, and may extend beyond the edge of the picture for the purpose of construction. Having fixed the position from which the spectator views the scene, the artist proceeds on the basis that parallel lines converge as they recede, and that they eventually meet at what is termed the ‘vanishing point’ on the ‘horizon line’. The artist then draws imaginary converging lines in order to depict how objects diminish in size the further they recede from the spectator.
Types of Linear Perspective
There are several types of perspective in painting, of which the most common are one-point two-point and three-point perspective, classified according to the number of vanishing points in the drawing.
One-point perspective is normally used when simple views are depicted, such as a railway track disappearing into the distance directly in front of the spectator.
Doshan Tappeh Street Kamal-ol-molk 1899 oil on cotton duck
Two-point perspective is typically used to depict two receding views, such as those visible to a person standing at the street-level corner of a building, where one wall recedes (eg) to the left, one to the right.
Three-point perspective is typically used for buildings viewed from above, or below. As well as the two vanishing points from our last example, one for each wall, there is now a third vanishing point which reflects how those walls recede into the ground or above into the sky.
MC Ewher Tower of Babel 1928
Because by definition, a vanishing point(s) can only exist when parallel lines are present in the scene, the absence of such lines means that the picture has no vanishing points – that is, zero-point perspective. This situation exists, for instance, in a natural scene like a mountain range, or a view out to sea – neither of which usually contains any parallel lines.
However, zero-point perspective can still have a sense of ‘depth’: more distant mountains and more distant sailing boats have smaller scale features. The concept of ‘atmospheric perspective’ – where dust and water vapour suspended in the atmosphere partly obscure our view of distant objects – is also used to depict depth in these natural scenes.
Landscape near Haarlem Andreas Schelfhout 1839
Some basic rules of perspective in painting are:
(1) objects which are closer appear larger, while more distant objects appear smaller
(2) the size of an object’s dimensions along the line of sight appear relatively shorter (foreshortened) than dimensions across the line of sight.
(3) Brighter colors are used on closer objects while more distant objects are painted with more muted tones. In real life as you look into a scene (such as a landscape) you may notice that the sky becomes less blue and objects become blurrier and the color becomes duller. This is due to dust and water vapor in the air.
All three of these rules help create a sense of depth.
History
Although the Greeks and Romans drew foreshortened limbs and architectural forms, the geometrical tools necessary to construct a consistent illusion of spatial depth across the entire picture plane were first developed and used by 15th century Florentine artists.
In 1435 Alberti wrote the Latin manuscript De Pictura (On Painting), which he revised and translated into Italian in 1436. This was the first book to describe perspective methods as part of the overall design of a painting.
Before Perspective in Painting
Unknown German Master The Garden of Eden 15 century
This is what most paintings looked like before the rules of perspective were further developed. Very flat. All the figures roughly the same size. The top of the table is not realistic nor is the gardening box. Objects further away were generally shown higher up in the composition.
Unknown Artist St Paul’s Cathedral 1614
Geometrically incorrect attempt at perspective. Trying to get it here but no cigar.
Unknown Artist Reconstruction of the Temple of Jerusalem 15th Century
15th century illustration from the Old French translation of William of Tyre’s Histoire d’Outremer. There is clearly a general attempt to reduce the size of more distant elements, but unsystematically. Sections of the composition are at a similar scale, with relative distance shown by overlapping, foreshortening, and further objects being higher than nearer ones, though the workmen at left do show finer adjustment of size. But this is abandoned on the right where the most important figure is much larger than the mason. Rectangular buildings and the blocks of stone are shown obliquely.
What is Foreshortening?
In drawing, the term “foreshortening” refers to a method of representing an object in a picture in depth. For example, imagine how a standing man looks in terms of dimensions, seen from the front. Now imagine that this figure has been allowed to fall gently backwards, until stretched lengthways on the ground, with his feet pointing towards you and his head furthest away. If you wish to sketch this figure, the law of linear perspective dictates that, since his head is further away than his feet, you should make it appear smaller, so as to convey the illusion of ‘depth’ in the drawing – i.e. that it is receding away from the viewer into the picture space. Conversely, since the feet are now closer, they should appear larger. Most importantly, the figure’s torso and limbs should be compressed or ‘shortened’ in the sketch, to give effect to the optical illusion that an object appears shorter than it actually is when angled towards the viewer. Foreshortening was first studied during the 15th-century by painters in Florence, by Francesco Squarcione (1395-1468), who then taught the famous artist Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506).
Lamentation Over The Dead Christ Andrea Mantegna 1480 Tempera on Canvas
Early example of foreshortening or perspective in painting. Not executed perfectly. It is apparent that the artist is not quite there yet. His legs are too short while his arms are very long. His head is also quite big considering that is supposed to be farther away.
Giovanni Antonio Canal in Venice 1740
By the 18th century perspective was ensconced as a core study in art academies, which transformed perspective techniques into a mechanical orthodoxy that contributed to the extinction of strict perspective styles of painting.
Giorgio de Chirico’s The Street 1914
Complete departure from perspective. Intentionally this time. Art moves in cycles.
Perspective in Sculpture
St. George relief panel, Donatello, Florence, 1415- 16
The earliest surviving use of linear perspective in art is attributed to Donatello (1386-1466), who is considered by many to be the greatest sculptor of the early Renaissance in Italy, and perhaps one of the greatest sculptors of all time.
In this flattened relief, Donatello appears to be using linear perspective. However the diagonal lines are not so clearly defined that one can say for certain that he is using perspective, or to let us locate a precise vanishing point.
Gheorghe Zaharia Gates
You can see in Gates that there is one point perspective being used. It is used to represent a passageway to a more pure state.
Perspective by Artem Zigert
Is an elegant rendition of how playing with perspective can result in sculptural seating. straight lines, varied angles and spatial trickery provide a fascinating conversation piece
Multi-Perspective Shadow Sculptures
Words in Perspective – A Unique Sculpture Design
Artz 363 